This is the tenth article in Womble Bond Dickinson’s Energy & Natural Resources thought leadership series titled “Going Nuclear: A Sustainable Solution to Rising Energy Demand.” The series will explore the changing landscape of nuclear power, both domestically and internationally, and provide stakeholders with the strategic insights they need to navigate this expanding field.
In 2024, nuclear power generated approximately 19% of America’s electricity and provided more than half of its emissions-free power. Despite its key role in America’s power supply, the U.S. still faces the unresolved issue of managing the spent nuclear fuel (SNF) from commercial reactors. While some other nations manage SNF through reprocessing, recycling, and geologic repositories for high-level waste, the U.S. has struggled to implement similar solutions. Today, renewed interest in nuclear power, commercial investments, and supportive federal policies may signal new opportunities for SNF reprocessing and recycling in the U.S.
The U.S. nuclear fuel cycle is essentially linear: natural uranium is mined, milled, and processed into U3O8; then converted into UF6 and enriched to increase the percentage of fissile U-235 as needed for reactors using Low Enriched Uranium (LEU) or High Assay Low Enriched Uranium (HALEU). The enriched uranium is fabricated into fuel for the nation’s 94 commercial reactors and the growing number of advanced microreactors and small modular reactors (SMR) under development. While the front-end of the fuel cycle involves multiple steps, the back-end presently involves only interim SNF storage, pending permanent disposition.
With no permanent SNF repository in the U.S., more than 91,000 metric tons of SNF are stored in spent fuel pools and dry casks at reactor sites around the country with that amount growing by about 2,200 metric tons per year. This SNF is typically considered waste to be disposed of, however, approximately 95% of SNF can be reused. Reprocessing separates fission waste products from still-useful uranium and plutonium which can be recycled into new reactor fuel. This converts the linear fuel cycle into a closed one and reduces the amount of high-level waste that must be stored. The technology for reprocessing and recycling has existed for decades but the political will has been lacking.
Reprocessing technology originated in World War II, when Manhattan Project scientists developed chemical separation techniques to extract plutonium from used uranium fuel to create the materials needed for the first nuclear explosion and early atomic bombs. These techniques laid the foundation for subsequent U.S. national security and civilian reprocessing programs.
In the 1970s, the United States encouraged commercial reprocessing programs which led to the development of three reprocessing facilities: the Western New York Nuclear Service Center, the Morris Operation in Illinois, and the Barnwell Nuclear Fuel Plant in South Carolina. Only the New York facility achieved commercial operation before closing in 1972 due to regulatory changes and economics. Despite being backed by more than $250 million in private investment and costing more than $360 million, construction of the South Carolina facility was halted in 1977 after President Jimmy Carter indefinitely deferred commercial reprocessing and recycling of plutonium, citing proliferation concerns.
Subsequent administrations shifted policies repeatedly: President Reagan lifted the ban on reprocessing, President George H.W. Bush halted reprocessing again, President Clinton discouraged reprocessing, and President George W. Bush recommended international collaboration on reprocessing technologies. President Barack Obama reversed this recommendation and focused on developing a permanent geologic SNF repository. President Joe Biden maintained this focus but encouraged research on SNF reprocessing. President Donald Trump is actively encouraging reprocessing as part of efforts to reinvigorate the U.S. nuclear industrial base.
These programs demonstrate the technical feasibility of SNF reprocessing and recycling and may offer lessons for the U.S. as it takes a fresh look at the back-end of the fuel cycle.
While the United States has struggled, several other countries have demonstrated the viability of SNF reprocessing and recycling. France operates the world’s largest SNF commercial reprocessing facility which has reprocessed more than 40,000 metric tons of SNF and recycled it into new fuel for French and foreign reactors. Russia’s Mayak complex has reprocessed SNF since 2016 and is constructing additional reprocessing capacity. India has over 60 years of reprocessing experience and operates two facilities. The United Kingdom’s Sellafield facilities reprocessed more than 64,000 metric tons of SNF from the 1940s until 2022. Japan’s Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant is expected to open in 2026, and China is building a demonstration reprocessing plant and a larger-scale commercial facility, both of which are expected to be open in the near future.
These programs demonstrate the technical feasibility of SNF reprocessing and recycling and may offer lessons for the U.S. as it takes a fresh look at the back-end of the fuel cycle.
Several practical and policy dynamics are driving the renewed interest in domestic SNF reprocessing and recycling. Rising electricity demand associated with AI, data centers, and other hyper-scaler applications is fueling interest in nuclear power. Climate change concerns and decarbonization goals are also motivating interest in nuclear power as a clean, reliable resource. Increased deployment of utility-scale nuclear power plants, SMRs, and microreactors will generate more SNF which, in turn, will increase the need for long-term SNF and waste solutions.
Reprocessing can reduce the amount of high-level waste to be stored, and some advanced reactors under development can recycle SNF thereby creating a synergy between new reactor designs and recycling infrastructure.
Federal policies are also supporting this renewed interest. In March 2022, the Department of Energy launched the Converting UNF Radioisotopes into Energy (CURIE) Program to fund research into reprocessing technologies that reduce the volume of high-level waste and provide feedstocks for advanced reactor fuels. In May 2024, President Biden signed the Prohibiting Russian Uranium Imports Act creating a phased-in ban on imports of Russian uranium which may incentivize development of the domestic nuclear fuel supply chain, including reprocessing technologies that yield new reactor fuels. In May 2025, President Trump issued an Executive Order directing the Secretary of Energy by January 2026 to recommend a national policy for SNF management and deployment of advanced fuel cycle capabilities, evaluate reprocessing and recycling of SNF from federal reactors, and analyze legal, budgetary, and policy considerations related to transferring SNF to a government-owned, privately operated reprocessing and recycling facility. Finally, recent bipartisan legislation introduced in 2025 requires the Secretary of Energy to study SNF recycling, including the costs, benefits, and risks of the current linear nuclear fuel cycle as compared to recycling technologies.
Collectively, these various drivers are aligning to create a favorable environment for new reprocessing and recycling efforts in the US.
These private sector investments may be the strongest indication of real progress toward domestic reprocessing and recycling.
No commercial SNF reprocessing facilities currently operate in the U.S., however, several companies are actively working to change that. In February 2024, Orano partnered with Shine Technologies to develop by the 2030s an SNF recycling plant using Shine’s separation technology. Oklo plans to build a $1.68 billion Advanced Fuel Recycling Center in Oak Ridge, Tennessee to produce metal fuel for advanced reactors and expects to begin production by the early 2030s. Curio has successfully completed DOE laboratory demonstrations of its NuCycle process, a proliferation-resistant recycling technology, and expects to have a pilot-scale demonstration facility by 2027.
These private sector investments may be the strongest indication of real progress toward domestic reprocessing and recycling.
Despite growing public interest, supportive public policies, and industry investments, there are still challenges. Current reprocessing technologies show significant promise but require further investment and research to scale from demonstration projects to commercial facilities. SNF reprocessing is expensive and must prove that it is more economical than manufacturing fresh nuclear fuel. While new reprocessing technologies are designed to minimize or eliminate proliferation concerns, accounting for and managing the plutonium produced through reprocessing remains a legitimate issue. Policy instability has derailed prior U.S. reprocessing efforts and, following termination of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s rulemaking effort in 2021, the lack of a reprocessing-specific regulatory framework creates uncertainty.
These challenges are not insurmountable. For example, the American Nuclear Society has identified specific governmental actions that can be taken to develop an effective U.S. reprocessing and recycling program, including developing a revised national nuclear waste policy, embracing innovation, and supporting well designed public-private partnerships.
If government and industry remain committed to overcoming these hurdles, SNF reprocessing and recycling could become a key element of a reliable and clean domestic energy supply.
Reprocessing and recycling spent nuclear fuel offers a compelling vision - turning waste into an energy security resource while reducing environmental burdens. It is not, however, a complete solution – a long-term repository for high-level waste is still necessary. Public interest, technological innovation, industry investment, and government policy are aligning to suggest cautious optimism that domestic commercial SNF reprocessing and recycling may become a reality in the coming years. Success will depend on sustained investment, regulatory clarity, and public trust. If government and industry remain committed to overcoming these hurdles, SNF reprocessing and recycling could become a key element of a reliable and clean domestic energy supply.
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